Horseshoeing Part 5

A Text-Book of Horseshoeing

by A. Lungwitz and John W. Adams Copyright 1897

CHAPTER V.

WINTER SHOEING.

All shoes whose ground-surface is provided with contrivances to prevent slipping upon snow and ice are called winter shoes.

These various contrivances are produced by several processes called “methods of sharpening.” All methods may be gathered into two groups, – namely, practical sharp-shoeing and impractical. Only the first will be considered.

The durability of sharpened shoes depends partly upon whether they are made of steel or iron, and partly upon the nature of the ground in winter. If the ground is continuously covered with a thick layer of snow, whatever method of sharpening is followed, the shoes stay sharp; if, however, the winter is open, changeable, with more bare ice than snow, no method of sharpening, whatever it may be, will last long; the shoes will not stay sharp.

For these reasons no method of sharpening which fulfills all conditions satisfactorily has yet been discovered.

The simplest and at the same time the least durable method of sharpening is: 1. That by means of ice-nails or frost-nails (fig. 158). One or two nails are drawn from each branch of the shoe and replaced with ice-nails.

2. Sharp Toe- and Heel-Calks. – The outer calk is split and a small steel wedge welded in. It is then laid upon the edge of the anvil, indented and sharpened from within to without in such a manner that the calk shall be thin from the branch to the ground, and the outer surface shall be in the same vertical plane as the outer edge. If a calk is narrow from its base to its end, and at the same time without flaw, it does not need a sharp cutting edge. The inner calk should never be sharpened except the ground be very slippery. The cutting edge of this inner calk stands at right angles to the length of the branch, and its outer corner should then be rounded to prevent its injuring the opposite foot (Figs. 159, 160).

For horses used for heavy draft purposes a toe-calk is welded to the shoe and sharpened. For this purpose we use only steel (toe-steel), which is easily welded to the shoe and remains firm. Toe-calks and steeled heel-calks are tempered, in order, as much as possible, to lengthen their period of durability. This method of sharpening is the oldest and most wide-spread, and is employed on the shoes of all horses of which we require more than light service.

Hoofs are easily damaged or even ruined by frequently repeated sharpening of the shoes, because every time this is done the shoes must be removed and replaced.

3. Shoeing with Screw Heel-Calks. – Any ordinary flat shoe not too thin and narrow at the ends of the branches can be changed to a shoe with screw heel-calks by punching holes in the ends of the branches and cutting a thread in them.

The screw heel-calk holes are made either by punching or boring. The punching is done by means of an almost cylindrical hammerpunch, afterwards finishing the holes by driving through them a round punch which tapers from the middle towards both ends. On the ground-surface of the shoe the hole is moderately counter-sunk (Fig. 162, a), so that after the thread has been cut and the calk screwed into place the shoulder of the latter will rest on the counter-sinking.

At present nearly all screw-calks are made by machinery, either of iron or toe-steel. The former is too soft and therefore not sufficiently durable; the latter, however, is quite durable when the calk is properly hardened (tempered) by heating to a cherry-red, sticking the head of the calk as far as the tap into a bed of moist sand, and allowing it to slowly cool.

The chief requirements of a good screw-calk are, further, a clean, deep, but not too coarse thread, and but one size of thread and tap for all calks, so that every calk will fit in every shoe. A calk whose tap measures one half inch (12.7 millimetres) (Whitworth) in diameter is sufficient for the heaviest shoes. The tap which is used to cut the thread in the holes for the screw-calks must be about 1/125 of an inch thicker than the head of the calk. In the German army the calks have a tap fifteen thirty-seconds of an inch in diameter. The coachman should be given four calks (sharp and blunt) for each shoe, and a small screwcalk key for placing and removing them. Screw toe-calks are also used, yet they require special security to prevent their becoming loose. Experimentation with the screw toe-calks, though not yet entirely satisfactory, cannot be said to have ended.

The advantages of shoes provided with good screw heel-calks are so manifold that they deserve marked preference over shoes sharpened by the ordinary methods. The common objections urged against screw-calks, — namely, that they loosen and are lost, or break off, are not worthy of serious consideration, since these evils are merely the result of unskillful workmanship and poor material. Shoes with screw heel-calks are the best shoes for winer, especially for horses that have to work hard and continuously.

Balling with snow is prevented by using shoes narrow in the web and concave upon the ground-surface (convex iron), and thoroughly oiling the sole and frog. Sole-pads of felt, leather, or straw serve the same purpose.

Balling with snow is best prevented by a rubber sole-and-frog pad, or by a “stopping” of a patent hoof cement known in Germany as “huflederkitt.”

4. Shoeing with Peg-Calks. – The calks are merely stuck into the calk-holes, hence their name. Round and square peg-calks are used, but the former are better than the latter.

The inventor of round peg-calks is Judson, an American. The shoes differ in no respect from the ordinary flat shoes. It is necessary that the tap of the calk have a moderately conical form, and exactly fit into the calk-hole of the shoe. The taper of the calk-tap is correct if for every ten thirty-seconds of an inch in length it increases or diminishes one-thirty-second of an inch in diameter (equal to one inch in every ten inches of length).

Although the calk-holes may be punched in a hot shoe, yet boring and reaming them is much better, because by this method a more perfect fit can be secured. For this purpose we require a drill (a spiral drill is the best) whose diameter is exactly the same as that of the small end of the calk-tap (Figs. 165, c, and 166, c). After the shoe has been fitted to the hoof, the provisional holes are drilled an afterwards reamed out from the ground-surface of the shoe with the reamer shown in Fig. 167. Since the tap of the reamer corresponds exactly in size to the tap of the calk, it is evident that the latter must exactly fit and be tight. The wire edge that is raised around the hole is removed with a file, and the edge then smoothed by introducing the reamer a second time. The calks are made of rolled round steel, which has the thickness of the tap-end of the calk. For this purpose we require a calk-mould or matrix, in which one or more holes have been finished with a reamer. A piece of rod steel is heated at the end for a distance nearly twice the length of the calk, is swaged, thrust into the matrix, then broken off, and backset. This will give a blunt peg-calk. If a sharp calk is desired, the upper part of the head of the calk is sharpened in the ordinary manner, although this is accomplished most easily by using a pair of tongs with short jaws that are hollowed upon the inside for seizing the tap of the calk.

Before the shoes are nailed on, the normal punch should be oiled and driven into the calkholes, and the calks passed into the holes to see that they fit perfectly.

The calks are driven into place after the shoes are nailed to the hoofs. A light blow is sufficient to fasten a calk, yet a necessary precaution is first to remove every trace of oil from the calks and calk-holes. The first calk driven into place must be held with the hand while the second is being driven, otherwise it will either spring from the calk-hole or be loosened so that it will soon afterwards be lost.

To remove such a calk we strike its head from different sides with a hammer, stone, or other hard object until it becomes loose, when a rather hard blow upon the shoe causes it to spring out. Calks which have worn down are seized by a pair of sharp nippers and loosened by blows upon the shoe. Since a calk which is firm soon rusts and is then very difficult to remove, it is recommended that all calks be removed every night.

The advantages of peg-calks over screwcalks are: 1. They do not break off. 2. They are easier to make and simpler to use. 3. They are cheaper.

Disadvantages. — 1. Peg-calks are sometimes lost, even when properly made and most carefully introduced. This evil happens much less frequently when the calks are put in by the maker (horse-shoer) than when they are stuck in by the coachman, attendant, rider, or other person. When calks are lost on the way from the shop, it is usually due to some fault in the calk-holes or in the calks, although when the feet are balled with snow the calks are easily lost, because they do not then touch the ground.

2. The removal of the calks often involves many difficulties, whence they are apt to rust into place if not removed daily, and when worn down so far that they cannot be grasped with the pincers are almost impossible to remove. By hammering upon the calks and shoe many horses are rendered not only restive, but sensitive in the feet.

3. If horses are used without the calks, a wire-edge forms around the hole on the bottom of the shoe, which interferes with the placing of the calk and lessens its security.

The hollow peg-calk (Fig. 168), made by Branscheid & Philippi, of Remscheid, has considerable merit. It holds exceedingly well, and is very durable. It is furnished in three sizes, — Nos. 12, 13, and 14, — of twenty-seven, thirtyone, and thirty-four millimetres length, and twelve, thirteen, and fourteen millimetres diameter at the end of the tap.

A punch is furnished which, when driven up to its head in the holes of the heated shoe, insures a proper width and shape of the hole and an accurately fitting calk.

The calks may be removed by an extractor (Fig. 169) having at one end a thread which is screwed into a corresponding thread on the inside of the hollow calk, when by a few hammer blows on the shoe the calk loosens. To prevent the calk becoming choked with dirt, a piece of cork is thrust into the hollow. It may be easily removed by means of the cork-screw at the other end of the extractor.

5. Shoeing with Peg Toe- Calks. – These are an invention of considerable worth, especially for heavy draft in hilly country. They render better service on hind than on front shoes.

Peg toe-calks, with a single tap are simpler and preferable to those with two taps. Every known contrivance to prevent the occasional loss of the peg toe-calk is impractical.

The shoe for a peg toe-calk should be of good tough material and without a flaw. The toe of the shoe should be about one-twelfth to one-tenth of an inch thicker than the branches.

The hole for the peg toe-calk, whatsoever its shape may be, must be smooth and uniform, with clean, true corners. Semicircular holes should present the convex side towards the toe.

Before punching, draw up the toe-clip. A punch-plate with a good-sized hole and a tap which will fit into the square hole in the anvil will facilitate the work. The punch-plate when in position should be flush with the front edge of the anvil. Place the toe of the shoe, hoof surface upward, over the hole of the punch-plate, and drive a hole with a punch-hammer which is perceptibly thinner than the model punch. Now turn the shoe over, punch back from the ground surface, and then file away the wire edge which the punch has raised on the ground surface. Next, take a hand-punch, the end of which should just enter the hole, punch through from the ground surface, and correct any bulging by dressing lightly over the horn of the anvil. Finally, use the model punch to give the hole the exact size and smoothness.

Should the hole in the toe of the shoe enlarge in time, as sometimes occurs, then backset when necessary on removing the shoe. Backsetting is easiest with the half-round hole, because the curved side, being turned forward, runs approximately parallel to the outer border of the toe of the shoe.

A good serviceable peg toe-calk must possess the following characteristics:

1. The tap must be of such shape as not to turn; therefore, not round.

2. The tap must be cone-shaped, and diminish in diameter about one-thirty-second of an inch for each one-fourth of an inch of its length from base to apex. If the tap has less taper it will enlarge the hole in the shoe till the head of the calk comes into contact with the shoe, when the calk will loosen and drop out.

3. The tap must be full-formed and smooth.

4. It must fit air-tight in the toe, and a single hammer-blow should be sufficient to fix it securely.

5. The head of a toe-calk must not rest on the shoe; a space of one-sixteenth of an inch should intervene.

While a shoer of average mechanical ability can make a faultless peg toe-calk, it is not profitable to do so while good machine-made calks are to be had very cheap.

The best forms in use are the quadrangular heads, with oval, half-round (Figs. 171 and 172), and with two taps (Figs. 173 and 174).

In several European countries the peg toecalks with half-round tap and with two round taps are in use. To make good peg toe-calk shoes and fit the calks properly requires more than ordinary knowledge and skill. Poor work does much harm. Therefore, work carefully and get well paid for it.

6. Removable Heel-Calks that do not Require Sharpening. – The undeniable fact that all chisel-shaped or pyramid-shaped sharp calks become dull in time, and must then either be sharpened or replaced by new calks, renders shoeing not only costly, but injurious to the hoofs and annoying to the owner. This drawback is most pronounced in large cities, where the snow never lies long upon the streets, and the horse just sharp-shod is soon obliged to travel upon bare pavements. Attempts have been made to lessen this annoyance by the use of calks that do not require sharpening, and yet which will prevent slipping even after they have been used for a long time upon bare pavements. It cannot be denied that such calks have considerable value, and, except when the ground is covered with ice, many of these calks render excellent service. Just as the ordinary sharp calks are satisfactory and very durable outside of the large cities, so now for the first time a few of these recently invented sharp calks seem to be worthy of recommendation for city use. The following are the best:

1. Screw-calks and peg-calks with H-shaped cross-section (Fig. 175).
2. Screw-calks with +-shaped cross-section (Fig. 176).
3. Screw- and peg-calks with O-shaped cross-section (Fig. 176).
4. Screw- and peg-calks with S-shaped cross-section.
5. Angle-calks (Fig. 177).
6. Screw- and peg-calks with rubber foot-pad.
7. Screw-calks with Y star-shaped cross-section (Fig. 178).
8. Hollow wedge-calks (Fig. 179).
9. Perforated screw-calks (Fig. 180).

There is no doubt that the grip that these calks take upon the ground and their durability depend upon the diameter and the arrangement of their surfaces of friction. From all experiments made thus far it is shown that those calks which have narrow and comparatively few surfaces of friction are the least durable.

To introduce and remove the calks we use a calk key or wrench. For the shop, the ordinary fork key (Fig. 181), the jaws of which are tempered, is recommended. It fits all calks.

CHAPTER VI.

HOOF NURTURE.

Hoof nurture comprises all those measures which are employed to keep hoofs healthy, elastic, and serviceable.

A. Care of Unshod Hoofs.

The care of the hoofs of colts is of special importance. Abundant exercise upon dry ground which is not too stony is most beneficial. Such exercise will cause the hoofs to wear gradually, and it will only be necessary from time to time to observe whether the wear is taking place uniformly, and if not, to correct the uneven wear with the rasp.

If colts are reared in the stable, the horn continuing to grow down does not undergo sufficient wear, and changes in form of the hoof, and even permanent distortions of the bones of the foot gradually occur. The wall becomes too long and bends or sometimes separates from the sole and keraphyllous layer. Weak quarters bend (curl) inward and encroach upon the space occupied by the frog (contracted feet of colts). The toe becomes too long, and this gives rise to too steep a position of the pastern and causes an insecure and diffident gait; therefore the hoofs must be shortened from time to time. The incurved quarters should be removed with the hoof-knife, and the outer edge of the plantar border of the wall well rounded with the rasp. In the base-wide and base-narrow standing positions the outer and inner walls respectively become relatively long and induce the colt to assume a still more abnormal position. The young and pliant pasterns may thus become permanently twisted and distorted (see Figs. 183 and 184). In a hoof that is becoming awry, restoring to the wall its proper level with relation to the position of the limb will not only be invaluable in ultimately producing a good hoof, but will improve the faulty position of the limb. In exceptional cases, where the plantar border of some section of the wall gives evidence of too rapid wear, the application of a tip or of a half-shoe may be of benefit. Furthermore, we should attempt to secure greater cleanliness by frequently and thoroughly washing the hoofs and bedding with plenty of good straw.

Too early shoeing of young horses is very injurious; it hinders the development of the hoofs, and, furthermore, young horses when shod are frequently seriously overworked and prematurely ruined. Moderate work in the fields does not injure young horses, but for such service they do not require shoes.

The unshod hoofs of older horses should be periodically rounded with a rasp and the length of the walls regulated when, by reason of a lack of exercise, proper wear has not taken place.

B. Care of Shod Hoofs.

Shod hoofs are exposed to many more injuries than are unshod hoofs, because shoeing itself, although absolutely necessary to render horses continuously serviceable upon hard street, is injurious to the hoof, since it to a greater or less extent prevents the physiological movements of the different parts of the foot, interferes with the circulation of the blood in the foot, slows the growth of the horn, and brings about a gradual shrinking of the entire hoof.

In addition, there are the injurious consequences of stabulation. These are prevention of free movement, uncleanliness due to bad floors and filthy bedding, – as, for example, peat moss and soiled straw, – and dryness.

Continuous standing always contributes to contraction of the hoofs, and this evil is greatly favored by dryness, which more particularly affects the front hoofs. The hind hoofs receive sufficient moisture from the animal’s manure. Poor floors, particularly those that are uneven, tire the limbs. Accumulation of manure and the careless use of stationary sole-pads induce thrush of the frog.

The object of hoof nurture is to lessen or entirely remove all these injurious consequences of shoeing and stabulation. It comprises, therefore, not only the proper shortening of the hoofs every five to six weeks, but careful attention to cleanliness and moisture. Both are insured by dry straw and daily picking out and washing the hoofs. Such measures will prevent thrush in the hind feet. If front hoofs are washed once a day, sufficient moisture will penetrate the horn to give it that degree of suppleness (elasticity) which is possessed by an unshod hoof, and which contributes to a proper expansion of the hoof when the body-weight is placed upon it. In order to prevent a hoof from drying out, the entire hoof should receive a thorough application of an oil or ointment (hoof-salve). The object of greasing the horn is to prevent evaporation of the moisture that has penetrated the horn. Specially compounded hoof-salves are not necessary. Melted horsegrease, pork-fat, or any other fat that is not rancid is sufficient. Cosmoline is an excellent hoof-salve.

Abundant but not excessive exercise is more necessary than anything else to the preservation of the health of the hoof. It aids the circulation of blood within the foot, and, therefore, the growth of the horn. Horses which perform hard, regular work have, as a rule, better hoofs than those which stand the greater part of the time in the stable. Poulticing hoofs with clay, bran, linseed-meal, or white-rock, or standing them in water is unnecessary if they have had proper care, but will sometimes be of benefit when the hoofs have been neglected, and especially so for front hoofs. The latter are more exposed to drying influences, and the shoes prevent the moistening process by keeping the hoofs partially or completely removed from contact with the earth. Oiling alone is not sufficient to soften horn, but must always be preceded by permeation of the horn with water. Oiling without first cleansing the hoof is useless, because this soon produces a greasy crust underneath which the horn is crisp and brittle.

The surest sign of cleanliness of a hoof is the appearance of the natural color of the horn, the latter appearing translucent even after the hoof-ointment has been applied; therefore, blackened hoof-ointments should not be used. When hoofs are exposed to too much moisture (muddy roads, melting snow, etc.) an addition of wax or common yellow rosin to the hoof-ointment is recommended to prevent too great softening of the horn. No hoof-ointment has any direct influence upon the growth of the horn.

Inasmuch as it is a fact that the very best shoeing injures the hoof, it is advisable to allow horses to go barefoot whenever it is possible. This applies especially to horses that from any cause are thrown out of service, presupposing, of course, that the nature of the hoofs will allow them to go barefoot.